Language Systems International

“Continuous Weekly Cycle” Proven False

Modern Sabbatarians insist that Saturday is the Sabbath of the Bible because they believe that the seven-day week has cycled without interruption ever since Creation. One reason for this belief is the fact that when the Julian calendar changed to the Gregorian calendar in 1582, no days of the week were lost. Thursday, October 4, 1582, on the Julian calendar was followed by Friday, October 15, on the new Gregorian calendar. Therefore, it is assumed, because no days were “lost” when the calendars transitioned from Julian to Gregorian, the modern week is identical to the Biblical week.

This assumption is proven false in the historical facts of the Julian calendar itself. The calendar of the Roman Republic, like all ancient calendars, was originally based on lunar cycles. Pagan Roman priests, called pontiffs, controlled the calendar by announcing the beginning of months.

These pontiffs, who could also hold political office, shamelessly manipulated the calendar for political reasons, intercalating extra months to keep favorite politicians in office longer or, conversely, leaving needed intercalations out in order to shorten the terms of political opponents. By the time of Julius Cæsar, the dates of the calendar were completely out of alignment with the seasons. Julius Cæsar exercised his right (1) as pontifex maximus (2) (high priest) and reformed what had become a cumbersome and inaccurate accounting of time.

In the mid-1st century B.C. Julius Cæsar invited Sosigenes, an Alexandrian astronomer, to advise him about the reform of the calendar, and Sosigenes decided that the only practical step was to abandon the lunar calendar altogether. Months must be arranged on a seasonal basis, and a tropical (solar) year used, as in the Egyptian calendar . . . .(3)

Notice that Sosigenes’ big innovation was an abandonment of lunar calendation.

The great difficulty facing any [calendar] reformer was that there seemed to be no way of effecting a change that would still allow the months to remain in step with the phases of the Moon and the year with the seasons. It was necessary to make a fundamental break with traditional reckoning to devise an efficient seasonal calendar.(4)

To bring the new calendar back into alignment with the seasons required adding an additional 90 days to the year, which ever after became known as the Year of Confusion. However, the Julian calendar of 45 B.C., even the Julian calendar of Christ’s day, did not look like the Julian calendar when Pope Gregory XIII modified it, and thus did not look like the Gregorian calendar of today. There was no Saturday (or seventh-day Sabbath at the end of the week) on the original Julian calendar.

The Julian calendar, like the calendar of the Republic before it, originally had an eight-day cycle. Every eighth day was a nundinæ, or market day. The calendars were not constructed in grids as are modern calendars, but the dates were listed in columns. For example, January started with day “A” and would proceed on through the eight days of the week (A through H), ending the month at day “E”.

Unlike the Hebrew calendar, the Roman calendar had a continuous weekly cycle throughout the year, with a little adjustment at the end of the year. Because January ended on day “E”, February began on day “F”. Likewise, February ending on day “A” started March off on day “B”:

Following is a reconstruction of the Fasti Antiates, a pre-Julian calendar dating from the 60s B.C. found at the site of Nero’s villa in Antium. The letter A was painted red to indicate the start of the week.

Reconstruction of Fasti Antiates, the only calendar of the Roman Republic still in existence.(5)

There are thirteen columns. January, on the left, begins on day “A” and ends on day “E”. At the bottom of each column are large Roman numerals giving the number of days in that month. The far right hand column is the 13th, intercalary month. Additional letters appear beside the week-day letters. These indicated what sort of business could or could not be conducted on that day. A “k” was painted beside the First Day of every month. This stood for kalendæ.(6)

It is important to remember that the Biblical week as an individual unit of time defined in Genesis 1, consisted of only seven days: six working days followed by a Sabbath rest on the last day of the week. The eight-day cycle of the Julian calendar was in use at the time of Christ. However, the Jews would not have kept the seventh-day Sabbath on the eight-day weekly cycle of the Julian calendar. This would have been idolatry to them.

An example of a Julian calendar dating from the time of Augustus(7) (63 B.C. – A.D. 14) to Tiberius(8) (42 B.C. – A.D. 37), is preserved on these stone fragments. The eight-day week is clearly discernible on them.

A later seven-day week Julian calendar, as seen in the following drawing of a stick calendar found at the Baths of Titus (constructed 79 – 81 A.D.), provides further proof that the Biblical Sabbath can never be found using the Julian calendar. The center circle contains the 12 signs of the zodiac, corresponding to the 12 months of the year. The Roman numerals to the left and right indicate the days of the month. Across the top of the stick calendar appear the seven planetary gods of the pagan Romans.(9)

Saturday (or dies Saturni – the day of Saturn)(10) was the very first day of the week, not the seventh. As the god of agriculture, he can be seen in this preëminant position of importance, holding his symbol, a sickle. Next, on the second day of the pagan planetary week, is seen the sun god with rays of light emanating from his head. The second day of the week was originally dies Solis (the day of the Sun – Sunday). The third day of the week shows the moon goddess, with the horned crescent moon as a diadem on her head. Her day was dies Lunæ (day of the Moon – Monday). The rest of the days are represented by the other planetary gods, ending with dies Veneris (day of Venus, which in Northern European languages was changed to a Norse godess and became Friga’s day, or Friday.)(11)

Because the entire world has used the Gregorian calendar for hundreds of years, it is a frequently overlooked fact that in former times, not only did various countries use differing calendars, but there were also regional differences within individual countries. Although the seven-day planetary week became popularized in Rome with the rise of the cult of Mithras, it did not become official until Constantine standardized the week at the Council of Nicaea.(12)

In light of these facts, it is illogical to assume that the Gregorian Saturday is the Biblical Sabbath of Creation. It is true that the Julian calendar transitioned to the Gregorian calendar without any loss of days. However, it is also true that the Gregorian calendar, like the Julian calendar before it, is founded entirely upon a pagan system of calendation.

Jesuit astronomer, Christopher Clavius (1538-1612), confirmed that the Julian calendar is rooted in pure paganism and has no ties whatsoever to Biblical calendation. Clavius is world-renowned as the architect of the modern Gregorian calendar. Because the Julian calendar is just a little too long, by the 16th century, the vernal equinox was no longer falling on the date arbitrarily assigned to it in the third century: March 21. Pope Gregory XIII assigned Clavius the task of calendar reform to bring the spring equinox back to March 21. (13)

In his book, Romani Calendarii A Gregorio XIII P.M. Restituti Explicato, Clavius reveals that when the Julian calendar was made the ecclesiastical calendar of the Church at the Council of Nicaea, the Church deliberately rejected Biblical calendation and instead adopted pagan calendation. Referring to the differing systems of calendation used for determining the Biblical Passover versus the pagan substitute of Easter, Clavius states: “The Catholic Church has never used that [Jewish] rite of celebrating the Passover, but always in its celebration has observed the motion of the moon and sun, and it was thus sanctified by the most ancient and most holy Pontiffs of Rome, but also confirmed by the first Council of Nicaea.”(14) The “Pontiffs” he is referring to are the ancient priests of Roman paganism.

Modern Christians have assumed that the Gregorian Saturday is the Biblical Sabbath. However, Christians who lived at the time the Julian calendar was enforced by civil legislation had no doubts or confusion over the matter: the “Sabbath” was calculated by the Biblical luni-solar calendar; the “Lord’s day” (Sunday) by the pagan solar calendar. As David Sidersky noted, “It was no more possible under Constance to apply the old calendar.”(15) Apostolic Christians, however, did not obey the new edict.

At every step in the course of the apostasy, at every step taken in adopting the forms of sun worship, and against the adoption and the observance of Sunday itself, there had been constant protest by all real Christians. Those who remained faithful to Christ and to the truth of the pure word of God observed the Sabbath of the Lord according to the commandment, and according to the word of God which sets forth the Sabbath as the sign by which the Lord, the Creator of the heavens and the earth, is distinguished from all other gods. These accordingly protested against every phase and form of sun worship. Others compromised, especially in the East, by observing both Sabbath and Sunday. But in the west under Roman influences and under the leadership of the church and the bishopric of Rome, Sunday alone was adopted and observed.(16)

The Council of Nicaea (A.D. 321-324) outlawed the Biblical luni-solar calendar for ecclesiastical use, and supplanted the Julian calendar in its place, commanding that people everywhere “venerate”(17) the day of the Sun.(18) Some began to compromise. While many Christians clung to keeping the original Sabbath by the luni-solar calendar, others, with the rabbinical Jews, kept the seventh day of the Julian calendar: Saturday. Still others kept Saturday as well as Sunday. This did not satisfy the Church at Rome. She wanted everyone worshipping exclusively on Sunday. When the edict of Nicaea did not have the desired effect on the people, the Council of Laodicea was convened approximately 40 years later to enforce the acceptance of “the Lord’s Day” in place of the Biblical, lunar Sabbath.

In order, therefore, to the accomplishment of her original purpose, it now became necessary for the church to secure legislation extinguishing all exemption, and prohibiting the observance of the Sabbath so as to quench that powerful protest [against worship on Sunday]. And now . . . the “truly divine command” of Constantine and the council of Nicaea that “nothing” should be held “in common with the Jews,” was made the basis and the authority for legislation, utterly to crush out the observance of the Sabbath of the Lord, and to establish the observance of Sunday only in its stead.(19)

Canon 29 of the Council of Laodicea demanded: “Christians shall not Judaize and be idle on Saturday, but shall work on that day; but the Lord’s day they shall especially honor, and, as being Christians, shall, if possible, do no work on that day. If however, they are found Judaizing, they shall be shut out from Christ.”

It is important to know that the word “Saturday” has been supplied in the English translation. According to Catholic bishop, Karl J. von Hefele’s(20) History of the Councils of the Church from the Original Documents, the word used was actually “Sabbath” in both the Greek and the Latin and the word “anathema” (accursed) in place of “shut out”. The Latin version clearly does not contain any reference to dies Saturni (Saturday) but instead uses Sabbato, or “Sabbath”:

Quod non oportet Christianos Judaizere et otiare in Sabbato, sed operari in eodem die. Preferentes autem in veneratione Dominicum diem si vacre voluerint, ut Christiani hoc faciat; quod si reperti fuerint Judaizere Anathema sint a Christo.

Only in recent years, as the facts of history have been forgotten, has Saturday been assumed to be the Biblical Sabbath. When the Julian calendar was being enforced upon Christians for ecclesiastical use, no one at the time confused dies Saturni with Sabbato. Everyone knew that they were two different days by two distinct calendar systems.

A few days before His death, Christ made a profound statement that should be considered in the context of the controversy over true versus counterfeit calendars. He said, “Render therefore unto Cæsar the things which are Cæsar’s; and unto God the things that are God’s.”(21) Christ was here establishing an important principle that was to govern every area of life. Worship does not belong to Cæsar. It belongs solely to the Creator.

An ancient proverb states: “He who controls the calendar, controls the world.” Who controls you? The day on which you worship, calculated by the calendar you use, reveals which God/god is in control of you. Worship on the true Sabbath is a sign of loyalty to our Creator. Only the Creator, the One in control of the sun, moon and stars, His calendar, has the right to tell His people when to worship and, by virtue of that right, to receive that worship.

 

• Julian Calendar History (Video)

__________________________________________________________________________

(1) Julius Cæsar had been elected Pontifex Maximus in 63 B.C. (James Evans, “Calendars and Time Reckoning,” The History and Practice of Ancient Astronomy, Oxford University Press, 1998, p. 165.)

(2) “Pontifex Maximus” is now a title reserved exclusively for the pope. This is very appropriate as the Gregorian calendar now in use is both pagan and papal, being founded upon the pagan Julian calendar and modified by, and named after, a pope.

(3) “The Julian Calendar”, Encyclopedia Britannica.

(4) Ibid., emphasis supplied.

(5) Palazzo Massimo Alle Terme, ed. Adriano La Regina, 1998.

(6) “Calendar,” Encyclopedia Britannica online.

(7) Cæsar Augustus, first Roman Emperor, is mentioned in the Bible. His levy of a tax led Mary and Joseph to Bethlehem in time for the birth of Christ. See Luke 2:1.

(8) Tiberius succeeded Augustus as emperor in 14 A.D., retiring in 35 A.D. (Historic Figures, www.BBC.co.uk/history.)

(9) The seven-day planetary week was adopted into the pagan Roman calendar with the rise of the cult of Mithras. (See Sunday in Roman Paganism, by R. L. Odom, Review & Herald Publ. Assoc., 1945.) The planetary gods thus became a permanent part of Julian calendation and pagan Roman culture.

(10) For further information on the original planetary week governed by the seven planetary gods, see How Did Sunday Get It’s Name?, by R. L. Odom, at www.4angelspublications.com/books.php. Copyright, 1972, by Southern Publishing Assoc., used by permission.

(11) J. Bosworth and T. N. Toller, Frig-dæg, An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary, 1898, p.337, made available by the Germanic Lexicon Project. See also “Friday” in Webster’s New Universal Unabridged Dictionary, 2nd edition, 1983.

(12) See R. L. Odom’s “The Planetary Week in the First Century A.D.”, Sunday Sacredness in Roman Paganism, Review and Herald Publish Assoc., 1944.

(13) “When Gregory XIII reformed the calendar, the adjustment was made such that the vernal equinox should occupy the position assigned to it in the Easter tables, viz. March 21. These tables date . . . from about the third century. The important point is that this adjustment placed the vernal equinox on a date that is purely arbitrary and not necessarily related to the date on which the equinox fell when the revision of the calendar by Julius Cæsar was made.” (Letter from Dr. H. Spencer-Jones, Astronomer Royal, Royal Observatory, Greenwich, London, to Grace Amadon, dated Dec. 28, 1938, Collection 154, Box 1, Folder 4, Center for Adventist Research, Andrews University, emphasis supplied.

(14) Christopher Clavius, Romani Calendarii A Gregorio XIII P.M. Restituti Explicato, p. 54, as quoted in “Report of Committee on Historical Basis, Involvement, and Validity of the October 22, 1844, Position”, Part V, Sec. B, p. 18, Collection 154, Center for Adventist Research, Andrews University.

(15) Astronomical Origin of Jewish Chronology, Paris, 1913, p. 651.

(16) A. T. Jones, The Two Republics, A. B. Publishing, Inc., 1891, p. 320-321.

(17) Venerate: “to look upon with deep respect and reverence; . . . to regard as hallowed.” Webster’s New Universal Unabridged Dictionary, 2nd edition, 1983.

(18) “Constantine, Emperor Augustus, to Helpidius: On the venerable day of the sun let the magistrates and people residing in cities rest, and let all worships be closed. In the country, however, persons engaged in agriculture may freely and lawfully continue their pursuits; because it often happens that another day is not so suitable for grain-sowing or for vine-planting; lest by neglecting the proper moment for such operations, the bounty of heaven should be lost.” P. Schaff’s translation, History of the Christian Church, Vol. III, p. 75.

(19) A. T. Jones, The Two Republics, A. B. Publishing, Inc., 1891, p. 321, emphasis supplied.

(20) Karl Josef von Hefele (1809-1893), is a credible authority on the original word choice used at the Council of Laodicea. A German scholar, theologian and professor of Church history, educated at Tϋbingen University, and later bishop of Rottenburg, he had access to the Vatican archives and original documents.

(21) Matthew 22:21

About the Author

At WorldsLastChance, the Bible and the Bible Alone is the rule of faith and duty.  WorldsLastChance is a group of nondenominational followers of Yahushua (Jesus) who are dedicated to spreading the awesome news that the second coming of Yahushua is only a few years away according to Bible prophecy.

 

• http://www.worldslastchance.com
• http://www.worldslastchance.com/articles/
• http://www.worldslastchance.com/wlc-videos/english/latest.html

 

GTHM vince talking in our romany language

Learn Romani $24.32 Following 18 carefully structured lessons, this Romani language primer explores the vocabulary and grammar of the Kalderash Roma in Europe, the United States, Canada, and Latin America. Designed for beginner students, this course reference begins …

The Romany Rye $2.39 The Romany Rye

Romany Of The Snows $2.39 Romany Of The Snows

Romano LaVO-Lil – Word Book of the Romany or English Gypsy Language $40.69 Originally published in 1874. The book also contains specimens of Gypsy poetry, and an account of certain Gypsyries and of various things relating to Gypsy life in England. Contents include: The Gypsy Language – Word Book of the Romany – Gypsy verbs – Little Sayings – The Lord’s Prayer in Gypsy Dialect – Book of Wisdom of the Egyptians – Gypsy names of Countries and Towns – English Gypsy Songs – Foreign Gypsy Songs – The English Gypsies – Gypsy names – Fortune Telling – Metropolitan Gypsies – Famous Gypsies. Etc

The Story of the Gypsies (History of the Romany) $35.31 Originally published in London 1929. Many of the earliest books, particularly those dating back to the 1900s and before, are now extremely scarce and increasingly expensive. Obscure Press are republishing these classic works in affordable, high quality, modern editions, using the original text and artwork. Contents Include: The Missing Words. – The Origin of the Gypsies. – The Macedonian Gypsy. – The Gypsies in Roumania. – The Gypsies in Hungary. – The Gypsies in France. – The Gypsies in Spain. – The Gypsies in Germany. – The Russian Gypsy. – The English Gypsy. – The American Gypsy. – Nordic Gypsies and Other Strays. – The Tent in the Wind. A learned discussion of the mystery of the origin of the Gypsy race and their language, their achievement of happiness without civilisation, and the wild romanticism of their complete denial of nearly all accepted ethical and social values.

Romany Regular $29 Download the Romany Regular font for Mac or Windows in OpenType, TrueType or PostScript format.

A Romany Life $46.98 Originally published early 1900′s. The story of Gipsy Petulengro’s early life in his own words. The illustrated contents deal with Romany Ways – Poaching – Horse Secrets – Making Caravans – Romany Fights – The English Romany – Romance – Gypsy Magic – Romany Cures – Music – Romany Ways with Dogs – Romany Charms etc. etc. Many of the earliest gypsy books, particularly those dating back to the 1900s and before, are now extremely scarce and increasingly expensive. Home Farm Books are republishing many of these classic works in affordable, high quality, modern editions, using the original text and artwork.

The Romany Rye Gypsy Intermezzo $59.99 The Romany Rye Gypsy Intermezzo – Wall Decal

Romany Free $18.5 This book is in Good Used condition

Lavengro and the Romany Rye $30.13 1851. Designed to be read as a modern novel. English writer and traveler, Borrow led a nomadic life in England and on the Continent, where he was a translator and agent for the British and Foreign Bible Society. The autobiographical Lavengro is considered his masterwork and its sequel, Romany Rye, is also considered among his best work. Like all of his other writings, these two volumes are based on his wanderings.

King John of the Romany Band of Gypsies Photograph – Washington, DC $19.99 King John of the Romany Band of Gypsies Photograph – Washington, DC – Premium Poster

The Curse of the Romany Wolves $3.95 "Penhaligon takes on pirates and sea serpents on the high seas. " The creatures of Porthleven are suffering from a mysterious illness that looks like "Febra lupi," the curse of the Romany wolves, which has no known cure. The dashing apothecary fox Penhaligon must find a cure or risk losing everyone he holds dear Penhaligon uncovers a fragment of parchment that just might be a recipe for a cure–and it includes ingredients found only on the haunted Howling Island. But the obstacles Penhaligon must face on his quest for the cure make ghosts seem friendly: Pirates Sea serpents Double-crossing ferrets Can Penhaligon make it back in time to save his village?

Romany Remedies and Recipes $19.07 Originally published in 1935, this brilliant little book contains a host of geniune Romany Remedies collated by Gipsy Petulengro, Grandson of the old gypsy tinker, Petulengro, immortalised by George Borrow in"The Romany Rye" and "Lavengro." All the remedies should be taken with a pinch of salt (or in some cases, not at all ) but the majority of them still make good sense today and the book is a fascinating read. Contents Include Remedies, Ointments, Embrocations and Liniments, Recipes, Dog Hints, Fakes, Fishing, Poaching and Other Tricks and Recipes. Contains alleged remedies for Rheumatism, Neuralgia, Jaundice, Dyspepsia and Deafness. Remedies: Aperient, Appendicitis, Asthma and Chest Complaints, Bad Blood, Scurvy, Eruptions, Bad Legs, Ulcers, Bladder trouble, Blood Pressure, Boils and carbuncles, Catarrh, Catarrh of the Bladder ( ), Chilblains, Colds, Constipation, Consumption, Corns, Coughs, Cystitis, Deafness, Diabetes, Diarrhoea, Dropsy, Dyspepsia, Epilepsy, Eye Afflictions, Gastritis, Gout, gravel, Hair Stimulant, Heart, Hoarseness, Indigestion, Inflamed Eyes, Influenza, Insomnia, Itches, Jaundice, Kidney complaints, Lumbago, Lung troubles, Menstrual Irregularities, Nerves, Neuralgia, Obesity, Piles, Pleurisy, Quinsy, Rheumatism, Sciatica, Sickness, Sore Throats, St Vitus’ Dance, Stone in Bladder, Tapeworms and Whooping cough. And that’s just the first chapter Keywords: Boils And Carbuncles Romany Rye Chilblains Dyspepsia Appendicitis Scurvy Catarrh Deafness Recipes Dropsy Jaundice Rheumatism Bad Blood Old Gypsy George Borrow Chest Complaints Liniments Geniune Pinch Of Salt Corns

The Romany Rye (Dodo Press) $25.2 George Henry Borrow (1803-1881) was an English author who wrote novels and travelogues based on his own experiences around Europe. Over the course of his wanderings, he developed a close affinity with the Romani people of Europe, and they figure prominently in his work. Borrow was born at East Dereham, Norfolk. He was educated at the Royal High School of Edinburgh and Norwich Grammar School. He studied law, but languages and literature became his main interests. In 1825, he began his first major European journey, walking in France and Germany. Over the next few years he visited Russia, Portugal, Spain and Morocco, acquainting himself with the people and languages of the various countries he visited. His book The Zincali (1841) was moderately successful, and The Bible in Spain (1843) was a huge success, making Borrow a celebrity overnight. But the eagerly awaited Lavengro: The Scholar, the Gypsy, the Priest (1851) and The Romany Rye (1857) puzzled many readers, who were not sure how much was fact and how much fiction (a question debated to this day).

Romany Hints for Outdoor Living and Tips for Ramblers $24.41 Originally published in the 1930s. The author was a Romany who spent many years of his life under the open sky and living off the land. This book will prove of great interest to hunters, ramblers, and campers. Contents Include: General Hints – Clothing – Pitching Camp – Hammocks – Equipment – Food and Outdoor Cooking – Recipes – Fires – Temporary Ovens – Breaking Camp – Weather Signs – The Romany Filter – etc. Illustrated with explanatory drawings. Many of the earliest books, particularly those dating back to the 1900s and before, are now extremely scarce and increasingly expensive. Home Farm Books are republishing these classic works in affordable, high quality, modern editions, using the original text and artwork.

Through Romany Songland $32.73 Many of the earliest books, particularly those dating back to the 1900s and before, are now extremely scarce and increasingly expensive. We are republishing these classic works in affordable, high quality, modern editions, using the original text and artwork.

The Romany Rye a Sequel to $32.69 This is a pre-1923 historical reproduction that was curated for quality. Quality assurance was conducted on each of these books in an attempt to remove books with imperfections introduced by the digitization process. Though we have made best efforts – the books may have occasional errors that do not impede the reading experience. We believe this work is culturally important and have elected to bring the book back into print as part of our continuing commitment to the preservation of printed works worldwide.

The Wind on the Heath – A Gypsy Anthology (Romany History Series) $33.83 THE WIND ON THE HEATH. A GYPSY ANTHOLOGY Chosen by John Sampson. This magnificent Gypsy anthology was first published in London 1930. It contains over 300 items of prose and verse gleaned from classical literature, folklore, history and true Gypsy life. It has long been considered unique in its field and is very hard to find in its first edition. READ COUNTRY BOOKS has now re-published this scarce book incorporating the original text and illustrations. The book’s 380 pages are divided into 12 sections designed to bring to light the chief facets of Gypsy life. They have been chosen for their historical and archaeological interest, as well as illustrations of the real Gypsy way of life, and yet the same wind blows over all on this Gypsy heath.: – The Dark Race. – The Roaming Life. – Field and Sky. – Gypsies and Gentiles. – The Romany Chye. – Gypsy Children. – Sturt and Strife. – Black Arts. – A Gypsy Bestiary. – Egipte Speche. – Scholar Gypsies. – Envoy. Also included is a glossary of Romani words. This important book can be thoroughly recommended for inclusion in the library of all with an interest in Gypsy ways.

Wild Wales – Its People, Language and Scenery $25.44 A much loved and frequently reissued classic, Wild Wales first appeared in 1862. It is George Borrow’s account of a family holiday spent in Llangollen, North Wales, to which are attached two strenuous walking tours in search of the homes and haunts and last resting places of the bards whom he loved. Traveller, linguist and author of The Bible in Spain, Lavengro, and Romany Rye, Borrow explores the often dramatic scenery of Wales, delving into its literary past, its history, myths and legends, and meeting its people along the way, conveying as he does so his enthusiasm for all things Celtic. Wild Wales is a book rich with characters, complete with princes, heroes, villains and rogues. Frequently biased and argumentative, Borrow is at all times energetic and readable and remains among the liveliest writers on Wales. His book is still one of the best introductions to the country.

Language $32.86 1921. This little book aims to give a certain perspective on the subject of language rather than to assemble facts about it. It has little to say of the ultimate psychological basis of speech and gives only enough of the actual descriptive or historical facts of particular languages to illustrate principles. Its main purpose is to show what I conceive language to be, what is its variability in place and time, and what are its relations to other fundamental human interests-the problem of thought, the nature of the historical process, race, culture, art. Contents: Language Define; The Elements of Speech; The Sounds of Language; Form in Language; Grammatical Processes; Form in Language; Grammatical Concepts; Types of Linguistic Structure; Language as a Historical Product: Drift; Language as a Historical Product: Phonetic Law; How Languages Influence Each Other; Language, Race and Culture; and Language and Literature.